Cost-Related Insulin Rationing in US Adults Younger Than 65 Years With Diabetes.

This study uses 2021 National Health Interview Survey data to examine the prevalence of insulin rationing among adults younger than 65 years in the US by demographic characteristics.

Economic Evaluation of National Patient Blood Management Clinical Guidelines in Cardiac Surgery.

OBJECTIVES: To the best of our knowledge, no published clinical guidelines have ever undergone an economic evaluation to determine whether their implementation represented an efficient allocation of resources. Here, we perform an economic evaluation of national clinical guidelines designed to reduce unnecessary blood transfusions before, during, and after surgery published in 2012 by Australia's sole public blood provider, the National Blood Authority (NBA). METHODS: We performed a cost analysis from the government perspective, comparing the NBA's cost of implementing their perioperative patient blood management guidelines with the estimated resource savings in the years after publication. The impact on blood products, patient outcomes, and medication use were estimated for cardiac surgeries only using a large national registry. We adopted conservative counterfactual positions over a base-case 3-year time horizon with outcomes predicted from an interrupted time-series model controlling for differences in patient characteristics and hospitals. RESULTS: The estimated indexed cost of implementing the guidelines of A$1.5 million (2018-2019 financial year prices) was outweighed by the predicted blood products resource saving alone of A$5.1 million (95% confidence interval A$1.4 million-A$8.8 million) including savings of A$2.4 million, A$1.6 million, and A$1.2 million from reduced red blood cell, platelet, and fresh frozen plasma use, respectively. Estimated differences in patient outcomes were highly uncertain and estimated differences in medication were financially insignificant. CONCLUSIONS: Insofar as they led to a reduction in red blood cell, platelet, and fresh frozen plasma use during cardiac surgery, implementing the perioperative patient blood management guidelines represented an efficient use of the NBA's resources.

Optimizing HIV Prevention Efforts to Achieve EHE Incidence Targets.

BACKGROUND: A goal of the US Department of Health and Human Services' Ending the HIV Epidemic (EHE) in the United States initiative is to reduce the annual number of incident HIV infections in the United States by 75% within 5 years and by 90% within 10 years. We developed a resource allocation analysis to understand how these goals might be met. METHODS: We estimated the current annual societal funding [$2.8 billion (B)/yr] for 14 interventions to prevent HIV and facilitate treatment of infected persons. These interventions included HIV testing for different transmission groups, HIV care continuum interventions, pre-exposure prophylaxis, and syringe services programs. We developed scenarios optimizing or reallocating this funding to minimize new infections, and we analyzed the impact of additional EHE funding over the period 2021-2030. RESULTS: With constant current annual societal funding of $2.8 B/yr for 10 years starting in 2021, we estimated the annual incidence of 36,000 new cases in 2030. When we added annual EHE funding of $500 million (M)/yr for 2021-2022, $1.5 B/yr for 2023-2025, and $2.5 B/yr for 2026-2030, the annual incidence of infections decreased to 7600 cases (no optimization), 2900 cases (optimization beginning in 2026), and 2200 cases (optimization beginning in 2023) in 2030. CONCLUSIONS: Even without optimization, significant increases in resources could lead to an 80% decrease in the annual HIV incidence in 10 years. However, to reach both EHE targets, optimization of prevention funding early in the EHE period is necessary. Implementing these efficient allocations would require flexibility of funding across agencies, which might be difficult to achieve.

Health care costs associated with hepatitis C virus infection in First Nations populations in Ontario: a retrospective matched cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Colonization and marginalization have affected the risk for and experience of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection for First Nations people in Canada. In partnership with the Ontario First Nations HIV/AIDS Education Circle, we estimated the publicly borne health care costs associated with HCV infection among Status First Nations people in Ontario. METHODS: In this retrospective matched cohort study, we used linked health administrative databases to identify Status First Nations people in Ontario who tested positive for HCV antibodies or RNA between 2004 and 2014, and Status First Nations people who had no HCV testing records or only a negative test result (control group, matched 2:1 to case participants). We estimated total and net costs (difference between case and control participants) for 4 phases of care: prediagnosis (6 mo before HCV infection diagnosis), initial (after diagnosis), late (liver disease) and terminal (6 mo before death), until death or Dec. 31, 2017, whichever occurred first. We stratified costs by sex and residence within or outside of First Nations communities. All costs were measured in 2018 Canadian dollars. RESULTS: From 2004 to 2014, 2197 people were diagnosed with HCV infection. The mean net total costs per 30 days of HCV infection were $348 (95% confidence interval [CI] $277 to $427) for the prediagnosis phase, $377 (95% CI $288 to $470) for the initial phase, $1768 (95% CI $1153 to $2427) for the late phase and $893 (95% CI -$1114 to $3149) for the terminal phase. After diagnosis of HCV infection, net costs varied considerably among those who resided within compared to outside of First Nations communities. Net costs were higher for females than for males except in the terminal phase. INTERPRETATION: The costs per 30 days of HCV infection among Status First Nations people in Ontario increased substantially with progression to advanced liver disease and finally to death. These estimates will allow for planning and evaluation of provincial and territorial population-specific hepatitis C control efforts.

Treatment of moderate to severe respiratory COVID-19: a cost-utility analysis.

Despite COVID-19's significant morbidity and mortality, considering cost-effectiveness of pharmacologic treatment strategies for hospitalized patients remains critical to support healthcare resource decisions within budgetary constraints. As such, we calculated the cost-effectiveness of using remdesivir and dexamethasone for moderate to severe COVID-19 respiratory infections using the United States health care system as a representative model. A decision analytic model modelled a base case scenario of a 60-year-old patient admitted to hospital with COVID-19. Patients requiring oxygen were considered moderate severity, and patients with severe COVID-19 required intubation with intensive care. Strategies modelled included giving remdesivir to all patients, remdesivir in only moderate and only severe infections, dexamethasone to all patients, dexamethasone in severe infections, remdesivir in moderate/dexamethasone in severe infections, and best supportive care. Data for the model came from the published literature. The time horizon was 1 year; no discounting was performed due to the short duration. The perspective was of the payer in the United States health care system. Supportive care for moderate/severe COVID-19 cost $11,112.98 with 0.7155 quality adjusted life-year (QALY) obtained. Using dexamethasone for all patients was the most-cost effective with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $980.84/QALY; all remdesivir strategies were more costly and less effective. Probabilistic sensitivity analyses showed dexamethasone for all patients was most cost-effective in 98.3% of scenarios. Dexamethasone for moderate-severe COVID-19 infections was the most cost-effective strategy and would have minimal budget impact. Based on current data, remdesivir is unlikely to be a cost-effective treatment for COVID-19.

Recomendação nº 017, de 26 de julho de 2021: recomenda ao Exmo. Sr. Presidente da República a adoção de medidas corretivas urgentes que promovam a execução orçamentária e financeira do Ministério da Saúde com celeridade / Recommendation nº 017, of July 26, 2021: recommends to the Hon. Mr. President of the Republic, the adoption of urgent corrective measures that promote the budget and financial execution of the Ministry of Health with speed

Recomenda ad referendum do Pleno do Conselho Nacional de Saúde ao Exmo. Sr. Presidente da República, a adoção de medidas corretivas urgentes, durante o exercício de 2021, que promovam a execução orçamentária e financeira do Ministério da Saúde com a celeridade requerida pela situação de emergência sanitária causada pela epidemia da Covid-19 no Brasil, bem como para a implementação de ações e serviços públicos de saúde, com vistas a cumprir as diretrizes para o estabelecimento das prioridades para 2021 aprovadas pela Resolução CNS nº 640, de 14 de fevereiro de 2020, conforme abaixo descrito: I - Programar e executar, imediatamente, as despesas a serem realizadas para o desenvolvimento de ações e serviços públicos de saúde, de modo a empenhar e/ou liquidar com celeridade as programadas no orçamento de 2021 para atender às necessidades de saúde da população, especialmente aquelas cuja execução obteve a classificação de "inadequado", "intolerável" e/ou "inaceitável" pela avaliação realizada pelo Conselho Nacional de Saúde; II - Distribuir melhor a execução das despesas com ações e serviços públicos de saúde ao longo do ano de 2021, inclusive das inscritas e reinscritas em restos a pagar, para atender com eficiência e eficácia as necessidades de saúde da população e não agravar ainda mais o processo de subfinanciamento e desfinanciamento do SUS que está em curso desde a vigência da Emenda Constitucional nº 95/2016; III - Ampliar a transferência de recursos do Fundo Nacional de Saúde para os Fundos Estaduais e Municipais de Saúde, com vistas ao enfrentamento da pandemia da Covid-19 durante o exercício de 2021, inclusive para compensar a redução de recursos transferidos no 1º quadrimestre de 2021, em comparação ao 3º quadrimestre de 2020, redução que prejudicou as finanças próprias estaduais e municipais diante dos aumentos de casos e mortes por Covid-19 verificados nesse período; IV - Encaminhar, para deliberação do Conselho Nacional de Saúde, os critérios pactuados na Comissão Intergestores Tripartite nos últimos anos para a transferência de recursos do Fundo Nacional de Saúde para os Fundos Estaduais e Municipais de Saúde, conforme determina a Lei Complementar 141/2012; V - Aumentar as ações de controle e auditoria no âmbito do SUS, especialmente no atual estado de emergência sanitária, para garantir a correta aplicação dos recursos públicos para o atendimento das necessidades de saúde da população; VI - Autorizar o Ministério da Saúde para cancelar em 2021 os Restos a Pagar (especialmente os não processados) referentes a empenhos de 2019 e anos anteriores, pela inviabilidade de execução destas despesas pelo tempo decorrido até o momento, os quais deverão ser compensados em 2021 como aplicação adicional ao mínimo daquele ano, nos termos do artigo 24, inciso II, parágrafo 2º da Lei Complementar nº 141/2012, ou exigir das secretarias do Ministério da Saúde a apresentação do plano de ação para execução imediata dessas despesas (com o devido cronograma até o final de 2022) como condição de evitar esse cancelamento; VII - Compensar o valor dos restos a pagar cancelados em 2020 como aplicação adicional ao piso federal do SUS em 2021 nos termos da Lei Complementar nº 141/2012, mas sem utilizar, para esse fim, as despesas extraordinárias para o enfrentamento da Covid-19 executadas em 2021.

Equitably Allocating Resources during Crises: Racial Differences in Mortality Prediction Models.

Rationale: Crisis standards of care (CSCs) guide critical care resource allocation during crises. Most recommend ranking patients on the basis of their expected in-hospital mortality using the Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) score, but it is unknown how SOFA or other acuity scores perform among patients of different races. Objectives: To test the prognostic accuracy of the SOFA score and version 2 of the Laboratory-based Acute Physiology Score (LAPS2) among Black and white patients. Methods: We included Black and white patients admitted for sepsis or acute respiratory failure at 27 hospitals. We calculated the discrimination and calibration for in-hospital mortality of SOFA, LAPS2, and modified versions of each, including categorical SOFA groups recommended in a popular CSC and a SOFA score without creatinine to reduce the influence of race. Measurements and Main Results: Of 113,158 patients, 27,644 (24.4%) identified as Black. The LAPS2 demonstrated higher discrimination (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve [AUC], 0.76; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.76-0.77) than the SOFA score (AUC, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.68-0.69). The LAPS2 was also better calibrated than the SOFA score, but both underestimated in-hospital mortality for white patients and overestimated in-hospital mortality for Black patients. Thus, in a simulation using observed mortality, 81.6% of Black patients were included in lower-priority CSC categories, and 9.4% of all Black patients were erroneously excluded from receiving the highest prioritization. The SOFA score without creatinine reduced racial miscalibration. Conclusions: Using SOFA in CSCs may lead to racial disparities in resource allocation. More equitable mortality prediction scores are needed.

The Dollar or Disease Burden: Caps on Healthcare Spending May Save Money, but at What "Cost" to Patients?

OBJECTIVES: Various strategies to address healthcare spending and medical costs continue to be debated and implemented in the United States. To date, these efforts have failed to adequately contain the growth of healthcare cost. An alternative strategy that has elicited rising interest among policymakers is budget caps. As budget caps become more prevalent, it is important to identify which features are needed to ensure success, both in terms of cost reduction and health improvement. METHODS: We explored the impacts of different features of budget caps by comparing hypothetical service level and global budget caps across 3 annual budget cap growth strategies over a 10-year timeframe in 2005-2015 for 8 of the most commonly occurring conditions in the United States. Health was assessed by a measure of disease burden (disability-adjusted life years). RESULTS: The results indicate that budget caps have the potential for creating savings but can also result in patient harm if not designed well. As a result of these findings, 5 principles were developed for designing budget caps and should guide the use of budget caps to address medical spending. CONCLUSIONS: As public discussion grows about the use of budget caps to constrain health spending, it is critical to recognize that the budget cap design and the resulting healthcare provider behavior will determine whether there is potential harm to public health. Budget cap design should consider variability at the condition level, including patient population, improvements in health, treatment costs, and the innovations available, to both create savings and maximize patient health. In assessing the impact of healthcare spending caps on costs and disease burden, we demonstrate that budget cap design determines potential harm to public health.

Allocating scarce intensive care resources during the COVID-19 pandemic: practical challenges to theoretical frameworks.

The COVID-19 pandemic strained health-care systems throughout the world. For some, available medical resources could not meet the increased demand and rationing was ultimately required. Hospitals and governments often sought to establish triage committees to assist with allocation decisions. However, for institutions operating under crisis standards of care (during times when standards of care must be substantially lowered in the setting of crisis), relying on these committees for rationing decisions was impractical-circumstances were changing too rapidly, occurring in too many diverse locations within hospitals, and the available information for decision making was notably scarce. Furthermore, a utilitarian approach to decision making based on an analysis of outcomes is problematic due to uncertainty regarding outcomes of different therapeutic options. We propose that triage committees could be involved in providing policies and guidance for clinicians to help ensure equity in the application of rationing under crisis standards of care. An approach guided by egalitarian principles, integrated with utilitarian principles, can support physicians at the bedside when they must ration scarce resources.

Efficient Postoperative Disposition Selection in Pediatric Otolaryngology Patients: A Novel Approach.

OBJECTIVE: Pediatric patients undergoing surgery on the aerodigestive tract require a wide range of postoperative airway support that may be difficult predict in the preoperative period. Inaccurate prediction of postoperative resource needs leads to care inefficiencies in the form of unanticipated intensive care unit (ICU) admissions, ICU bed request cancellations, and overutilization of ICU resources. At our hospital, inefficient utilization of pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) resources was negatively impacting safety, access, throughput, and finances. We hypothesized that actionable key drivers of inefficient ICU utilization at our hospital were operative scheduling errors and the lack of predictability of intermediate-risk patients and that improvement methodology could be used in iterative cycles to enhance efficiency of care. Through testing this hypothesis, we aimed to provide a framework for similar efforts at other hospitals. STUDY DESIGN: Quality improvement initiative. METHODS: Plan, Do, Study, Act methodology (PDSA) was utilized to implement two cycles of change aimed at improving level-of-care efficiency at an academic pediatric hospital. In PDSA cycle 1, we aimed to address scheduling errors with surgical order placement restriction, creation of a standardized list of surgeries requiring PICU admission, and implementation of a hard stop for postoperative location in the electronic medical record surgical order. In the PDSA cycle 2, a new model of care, called the Grey Zone model, was designed and implemented where patients at intermediate risk of airway compromise were observed for 2-5 hours in the post-anesthesia care unit. After this observation period, patients were then transferred to the level of care dictated by their current status. Measures assessed in PDSA cycle 1 were unanticipated ICU admissions and ICU bed request cancellations. In addition to continued analysis of these measures, PDSA cycle 2 measures were ICU beds avoided, safety events, and secondary transfers from extended observation to ICU. RESULTS: In PDSA cycle 1, no significant decrease in unanticipated ICU admissions was observed; however, there was an increase in average monthly ICU bed cancellations from 36.1% to 45.6%. In PDSA cycle 2, average monthly unanticipated ICU admissions and cancelled ICU bed requests decreased from 1.3% to 0.42% and 45.6% to 33.8%, respectively. In patients observed in the Grey Zone, 229/245 (93.5%) were transferred to extended observation, avoiding admission to the ICU. Financial analysis demonstrated a charge differential to payers of $1.1 million over the study period with a charge differential opportunity to the hospital of $51,720 for each additional hospital transfer accepted due to increased PICU bed availability. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of the Grey Zone model of care improved efficiency of ICU resource utilization through reducing unanticipated ICU admissions and ICU bed cancellations while simultaneously avoiding overutilization of ICU resources for intermediate-risk patients. This was achieved without compromising safety of patient care, and was financially sound in both fee-for-service and value-based reimbursement models. While such a model may not be applicable in all healthcare settings, it may improve efficiency at other pediatric hospitals with high surgical volume and acuity. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: N/A Laryngoscope, 131:S1-S10, 2021.

Optimal Allocation of Societal HIV Prevention Resources to Reduce HIV Incidence in the United States.

Objectives. To optimize combined public and private spending on HIV prevention to achieve maximum reductions in incidence.Methods. We used a national HIV model to estimate new infections from 2018 to 2027 in the United States. We estimated current spending on HIV screening, interventions that move persons with diagnosed HIV along the HIV care continuum, pre-exposure prophylaxis, and syringe services programs. We compared the current funding allocation with 2 optimal scenarios: (1) a limited-reach scenario with expanded efforts to serve eligible persons and (2) an ideal, unlimited-reach scenario in which all eligible persons could be served.Results. A continuation of the current allocation projects 331 000 new HIV cases over the next 10 years. The limited-reach scenario reduces that number by 69%, and the unlimited reach scenario by 94%. The most efficient funding allocations resulted in prompt diagnosis and sustained viral suppression through improved screening of high-risk persons and treatment adherence support for those infected.Conclusions. Optimal allocations of public and private funds for HIV prevention can achieve substantial reductions in new infections. Achieving reductions of more than 90% under current funding will require that virtually all infected receive sustained treatment.

Resource scarcity and prioritization decisions in medical care: A lab experiment with heterogeneous patient types.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, health care systems around the world have received additional funding, while at other times, financial support has been lowered to consolidate public spending. Such budget changes likely affect provision behavior in health care. We study how different degrees of resource scarcity affect medical service provision and, in consequence, patients' health. In a controlled lab environment, physicians are paid by capitation and allocate limited resources to several patients. This implies a trade-off between physicians' profits and patients' health benefits. We vary levels of resource scarcity and patient characteristics systematically and observe that most subjects in the role of physician devote a relatively stable share of budget to patient treatment, implying that they provide fewer services when they face more severe budget constraints. Average patient benefits decrease in proportion to physician budgets. The majority of subjects chooses an allocation that leads to equal patient benefits as opposed to allocating resources efficiently.

Recomendação nº 071, de 11 de dezembro de 2020: recomenda medidas corretivas que promovam a execução orçamentária e financeira do Ministério da Saúde com a celeridade requerida pela emergência sanitária causada pela pandemia do Covid-19 / Recommendation No. 071, of December 11, 2020: recommends corrective measures that promote the budgetary and financial execution of the Ministry of Health with the speed required by the health emergency caused by the Covid-19 pandemic

Recomenda ao Exmo. Sr. Presidente da República a adoção de medidas corretivas urgentes que promovam a execução orçamentária e financeira do Ministério da Saúde com a celeridade requerida pela situação de emergência sanitária causada pela pandemia do Covid-19 no Brasil, bem como para a implementação de ações e serviços públicos de saúde para cumprir as diretrizes para o estabelecimento das prioridades para 2020 aprovadas pela Resolução CNS nº 614, de 15 de fevereiro de 2019, homologada pelo Senhor Ministro da Saúde e publicada no Diário Oficial da União nº 54, de 20 de março de 2019, Seção 1, páginas 63 e 64: 1 - Identificar a existência de falhas de planejamento e/ou dos fluxos de processos de trabalho das secretarias e demais áreas técnicas do Ministério da Saúde, com o objetivo de: 1.1 ­ Adotar medidas para resolver os problemas de gestão para a realização das ações e serviços públicos de saúde cujos níveis de liquidação da despesa têm obtido reiteradamente as classificações de inadequado, intolerável e inaceitável nas análises quadrimestrais e anuais do Conselho Nacional de Saúde, o que possibilitará atender as necessidades de saúde da população. 1.2 ­ Adotar medidas para o gerenciamento adequado das despesas inscritas e reinscritas em restos a pagar, para que 100% da execução financeira dessas despesas possa ocorrer no máximo em um ou dois anos das datas dos respectivos empenhos, de modo a garantir que as necessidades de saúde da população possam ser atendidas no curto prazo. 1.3 ­ Adotar medidas para a avaliação da viabilidade econômico-financeira da execução das despesas inscritas e reinscritas em restos a pagar, especialmente daquelas despesas cujos empenhos são anteriores ao ano de 2019, de modo a identificar os que são passíveis de cancelamentos ainda em 2020, cuja compensação se dará por meio da aplicação acima do piso federal do SUS em 2021. 1.4 ­ Adotar medidas para empenhar os recursos disponíveis na Ação 21C0 (enfrentamento da Covid-19), considerando a existência de valores referentes a créditos extraordinários abertos por Medidas Provisórias de 19 de maio e de 20 de maio. 2 ­ Incrementar tanto o empenhamento, quanto a liquidação das despesas orçamentárias para vigilância em saúde, bem como adotar medidas urgentes para a efetivação da Política Nacional de Vigilância em Saúde, aprovada pela Resolução CNS nº 588, de 12 de julho de 2018, o que evitaria a perda dos testes de Covid-19 estocados conforme noticiado pela imprensa, particularmente as ações relacionadas as suas diretrizes: 2.1 ­ Articular e pactuar responsabilidades das três esferas de governo, consonante com os princípios do SUS, respeitando a diversidade e especificidade locorregional. 2.2 ­ Abranger ações voltadas à saúde pública, com intervenções individuais ou coletivas prestadas por serviços de vigilância sanitária, epidemiológica, em saúde ambiental e em saúde do trabalhador, em todos os pontos de atenção. 2.3 ­ Construir práticas de gestão e de trabalho que assegurem a integralidade do cuidado, com a inserção das ações de vigilância em saúde em toda a Rede de Atenção à Saúde e em especial na Atenção Primária, como coordenadora do cuidado. 2.4 ­ Integrar as práticas e processos de trabalho das vigilâncias epidemiológica, sanitária, em saúde ambiental e em saúde do trabalhador e da trabalhadora e dos laboratórios de saúde pública, preservando suas especificidades, compartilhando saberes e tecnologias, promovendo o trabalho multiprofissional e interdisciplinar. 2.5 ­ Promover a cooperação e o intercâmbio técnico científico no âmbito nacional e internacional. 2.6 ­ Atuar na gestão de risco por meio de estratégias para identificação, planejamento, intervenção, regulação, comunicação, monitoramento de riscos, doenças e agravos. 2.7 ­ Detectar, monitorar e responder às emergências em saúde pública, observando o Regulamento Sanitário Internacional, e promover estratégias para implementação, manutenção e fortalecimento das capacidades básicas de vigilância em saúde. 2.8 ­ Produzir evidências a partir da análise da situação da saúde da população de forma a fortalecer a gestão e as práticas em saúde coletiva. 2.9 ­ Avaliar o impacto de novas tecnologias e serviços relacionados à saúde de forma a prevenir riscos e eventos adversos.

Iran, sanctions, and the COVID-19 crisis.

With an over 80 million population, Iran is the second-largest country in the Middle East. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has spread over all 31 provinces of Iran, leading to the most cases and death among the Eastern Mediterranean countries. At the same time, Iran is under the United States political and economic sanctions that compromised Iran's health system. Although medicines and basic medical equipment exempted from the economic sanctions, direct and indirect effects of sanctions have restricted Iran's banking system, and consequently has led to a wide range of limitation on trade, manufacturing sector, insurance and ventures. All these circumstances have meant that Iran is restricted to provide the essential basic medical equipment for diagnosis, treatment and prevention of the COVID-19. Although sanctions are not the sole reason for this high rate of mortality and morbidity in a short time period, the chronic and long-term effects of sanctions may be more tangible than their acute impact. In conclusion, providing health services is one of the major problems of Iran's health system during this pandemic that potentially influence on morbidity and mortality of the COVID-19. Iran needs to be free from sanctions for battling against this crisis.Key messagesIran is one of the countries that significantly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic.Iran is under political and economic sanctions that consequently influence on their health system during the COVID-19 crisis.The chronic and long-term effects of sanctions may be more tangible than their acute impact.